This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Kalman Filter-Based RSS Preprocessing for Cryptographic Key Generation in Zero-Knowledge Feige Fiat Shamir Authentication
Corresponding Author(s) : M. Cahyo Kriswantoro
Kinetik: Game Technology, Information System, Computer Network, Computing, Electronics, and Control,
Vol. 11, No. 3, August 2026
Abstract
Secure authentication in wireless communication environments requires mechanisms capable of verifying identity without exposing confidential information. Zero-Knowledge Authentication (ZKA) addresses this challenge by enabling interactive identity verification without revealing secret credentials. However, in practical wireless implementations, the reliability of ZKA strongly depends on the quality and consistency of the cryptographic keys used during the authentication process. One promising approach is to generate keys from physical-layer characteristics, such as Received Signal Strength (RSS). Nevertheless, raw RSS measurements are highly unstable due to noise, interference, mobility, and signal fluctuations, which often result in low reciprocity and key mismatch between legitimate nodes. This study proposes a Kalman Filter-based preprocessing method to improve RSS quality prior to cryptographic key generation for Zero-Knowledge Feige–Fiat–Shamir authentication. The Kalman Filter is employed to suppress measurement noise and enhance reciprocity between communicating nodes, allowing both parties to derive more consistent symmetric keys. The generated keys are then integrated into the authentication process to replace conventional static, channel-dependent key components. The proposed approach was evaluated using key consistency, entropy level, and bit mismatch rate as performance metrics. Experimental results show that Kalman Filter-based preprocessing significantly improves RSS stability and increases the correlation between legitimate nodes compared with unfiltered RSS measurements. In addition, the generated keys exhibit lower bit mismatch rates and better entropy characteristics, leading to higher authentication success rates while preserving the confidentiality properties of Zero-Knowledge Authentication. These findings demonstrate that Kalman Filter-assisted RSS preprocessing provides an effective and lightweight solution for strengthening cryptographic key generation and improving the reliability of authentication systems in wireless communication environments.
Keywords
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)BibTeX
- R. Coppola and M. Morisio, “Connected car: Technologies, issues, future trends,” ACM Comput. Surv., vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 1–36, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1145/2971482
- C. Weiß, “V2X communication in Europe - From research projects towards standardization and field testing of vehicle communication technology,” Comput. Networks, vol. 55, no. 14, pp. 3103–3119, 2011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2011.03.016
- B. Sharma, M. Satya, P. Sharma, and R. Singh Tomar, “A Survey: Issues and Challenges of Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) under responsibility of International Conference on Sustainable Computing in Science, Technology and Management,” 2019. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3363555
- J. Petit and S. E. Shladover, “Potential Cyberattacks on Automated Vehicles,” IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst., vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 546–556, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1109/TITS.2014.2342271
- I. A. Kalmykov, A. A. Olenev, N. I. Kalmykova, and D. V. Dukhovnyj, “Using Adaptive Zero-Knowledge Authentication Protocol in VANET Automotive Network,” Inf., vol. 14, no. 1, Jan. 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/info14010027
- Y. Yu, Y. Li, M. H. Au, W. Susilo, K. K. R. Choo, and X. Zhang, “Public cloud data auditing with practical key update and zero knowledge privacy,” Lect. Notes Comput. Sci. (including Subser. Lect. Notes Artif. Intell. Lect. Notes Bioinformatics), vol. 9722, pp. 389–405, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-40253-6_24
- I. Arnomo, “Authentication Comparison of Telecommunications Technology Using A3, A8, A5 and Rijndael Algorithms,” Inf. J. Ilm. Bid. Teknol. Inf. dan Komun., vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 74–83, 2018. https://doi.org/10.25139/inform.v3i2.1031
- M. F. Falah et al., “Comparison of cloud computing providers for development of big data and internet of things application,” Indones. J. Electr. Eng. Comput. Sci., vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 1723–1730, 2021. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijeecs.v22.i3.pp1723-1730
- U. Feige, A. Fiat, and A. Shamir, “Zero-Knowledge Proofs of Identity,” 1988.
- S. Paramanik, “Comparison of Zero Knowledge Authentication Protocols,” 2014.
- S. Goldwasser, “Interactive proof systems,” vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 108–128, 1989. https://doi.org/10.1090/psapm/038/1020812
- M. Bellare and A. Palacio, “GQ and Schnorr Identification Schemes: Proofs of Security against Impersonation under Active and Concurrent Attacks,” Springer-Verlag, 2002. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-45708-9_11
- A. F. Septano, A. Kusyanti, and R. A. Siregar, “Implementasi Feige-Fiat-Shamir Identification Scheme untuk Autentikasi antara Node dan Gateway pada Module Lora,” 2021.
- L. Cheng, L. Zhou, B. C. Seet, W. Li, D. Ma, and J. Wei, “Efficient Physical-Layer Secret Key Generation and Authentication Schemes Based on Wireless Channel-Phase,” Mob. Inf. Syst., vol. 2017, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/7393526
- G. Hussain, S. J. Nawaz, S. Wyne, and M. N. Patwary, “On Channel Transforms to Enhance Reciprocity and Quantization in Physical-Layer Secret Key Generation,” IEEE Access, vol. 13, no. November 2024, pp. 256–272, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3523105
- M. Yuliana, Wirawan, and Suwadi, “A simple secret key generation by using a combination of pre-processing method with a multilevel quantization,” Entropy, vol. 21, no. 2, Feb. 2019. https://doi.org/10.3390/e21020192
- A. Shojaifar, “Evaluation and Improvement of the RSSI- based Localization Algorithm,” Blekinge Inst. Technol., pp. 1–109, 2015.
- M. C. Kriswantoro, A. Sudarsono, and M. Yuliana, “Secret Key Establishment Using Modified Quantization Log For Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network,” Inf. J. Ilm. Bid. Teknol. Inf. dan Komun., vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 103–109, Jul. 2021. https://doi.org/10.25139/inform.v6i2.4037
- Abhijit Ambekar and Hans D. Schotten, Enhancing Channel Reciprocity for Effective KeyManagement in Wireless Ad-hoc Networks. 2014.
- Amang Sudarsono, Mike Yuliana, and Prima Kristalina, A Reciprocity Approach for Shared Secret KeyGeneration Extracted from Received Signal Strengthin The Wireless Networks. IEEE, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1109/ELECSYM.2018.8615568
- E. M. Member, E. Hasan, and G. Student, “Concept Drift Aware Wireless Key Generation in Dynamic LiFi Networks,” IEEE Open J. Commun. Soc., vol. PP, p. 1, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1109/OJCOMS.2024.3524497
- N. N. Srinidhi, J. Shreyas, and E. Naresh, “Establishing Self-Healing and Seamless Connectivity among IoT Networks Using Kalman Filter,” J. Robot. Control, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 646–655, 2022. https://doi.org/10.18196/jrc.v3i5.11622
- K. M. Maslahati, I. B. Purnawan, and M. I. Aprianto, “Implementasi Kalman Filter dan Logika Fuzzy untuk Kontrol Adaptif Kecepatan Kipas Berdasarkan Suhu Implementation of Kalman Filter and Fuzzy Logic for Adaptive Control of Fan Speed Based on Temperature,” vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 259–274, 2025. https://doi.org/10.30595/jrre.v7i2.27212
- R. P. Astutik, “Filter Kalman Untuk Estimasi Daya Pada Komunikasi Bergerak,” E-Link J. Tek. Elektro dan Inform., vol. 1, no. 1, p. 25, 2018. https://doi.org/10.30587/e-link.v1i1.613
- V. Firmansyah, “Aplikasi Kalman Filter Pada Pembacaan Sensor Suhu Untuk,” J. Mater. dan Energi Indones., vol. 08, no. September, pp. 0–7, 2018. https://doi.org/10.24198/jmei.v8i01.16624
- M. Musayyanah, Hendra Daniswara, P. Susanto, and H. Harianto, “The Influence of Kalman Filtering on the Received Signal Strength Indicator in Multi-node Bluetooth Low Energy Communications,” Emit. J. Tek. Elektro, pp. 108–114, 2024. https://doi.org/10.23917/emitor.v24i2.2355
- S. M. Rostamkolaei Motlagh, C. Pahl, H. R. Barzegar, and N. El Ioini, “A Comparative Evaluation of Zero Knowledge Proof Techniques,” Int. Conf. Internet Things, Big Data Secur. IoTBDS - Proc., no. March, pp. 237–244, 2025. https://doi.org/10.5220/0013269100003944
- M. C. Kriswantoro, E. Handoyo, and M. Sa Yu Zakka, “Secure Authentication in Vehicular Networks: Integrating Zero-Knowledge Protocols with RSS Key Generation,” Inf. J. Ilm. Bid. Teknol. Inf. dan Komun., vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 146–151, 2025. https://doi.org/10.25139/inform.v10i2.9488
References
R. Coppola and M. Morisio, “Connected car: Technologies, issues, future trends,” ACM Comput. Surv., vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 1–36, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1145/2971482
C. Weiß, “V2X communication in Europe - From research projects towards standardization and field testing of vehicle communication technology,” Comput. Networks, vol. 55, no. 14, pp. 3103–3119, 2011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2011.03.016
B. Sharma, M. Satya, P. Sharma, and R. Singh Tomar, “A Survey: Issues and Challenges of Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) under responsibility of International Conference on Sustainable Computing in Science, Technology and Management,” 2019. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3363555
J. Petit and S. E. Shladover, “Potential Cyberattacks on Automated Vehicles,” IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst., vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 546–556, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1109/TITS.2014.2342271
I. A. Kalmykov, A. A. Olenev, N. I. Kalmykova, and D. V. Dukhovnyj, “Using Adaptive Zero-Knowledge Authentication Protocol in VANET Automotive Network,” Inf., vol. 14, no. 1, Jan. 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/info14010027
Y. Yu, Y. Li, M. H. Au, W. Susilo, K. K. R. Choo, and X. Zhang, “Public cloud data auditing with practical key update and zero knowledge privacy,” Lect. Notes Comput. Sci. (including Subser. Lect. Notes Artif. Intell. Lect. Notes Bioinformatics), vol. 9722, pp. 389–405, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-40253-6_24
I. Arnomo, “Authentication Comparison of Telecommunications Technology Using A3, A8, A5 and Rijndael Algorithms,” Inf. J. Ilm. Bid. Teknol. Inf. dan Komun., vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 74–83, 2018. https://doi.org/10.25139/inform.v3i2.1031
M. F. Falah et al., “Comparison of cloud computing providers for development of big data and internet of things application,” Indones. J. Electr. Eng. Comput. Sci., vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 1723–1730, 2021. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijeecs.v22.i3.pp1723-1730
U. Feige, A. Fiat, and A. Shamir, “Zero-Knowledge Proofs of Identity,” 1988.
S. Paramanik, “Comparison of Zero Knowledge Authentication Protocols,” 2014.
S. Goldwasser, “Interactive proof systems,” vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 108–128, 1989. https://doi.org/10.1090/psapm/038/1020812
M. Bellare and A. Palacio, “GQ and Schnorr Identification Schemes: Proofs of Security against Impersonation under Active and Concurrent Attacks,” Springer-Verlag, 2002. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-45708-9_11
A. F. Septano, A. Kusyanti, and R. A. Siregar, “Implementasi Feige-Fiat-Shamir Identification Scheme untuk Autentikasi antara Node dan Gateway pada Module Lora,” 2021.
L. Cheng, L. Zhou, B. C. Seet, W. Li, D. Ma, and J. Wei, “Efficient Physical-Layer Secret Key Generation and Authentication Schemes Based on Wireless Channel-Phase,” Mob. Inf. Syst., vol. 2017, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/7393526
G. Hussain, S. J. Nawaz, S. Wyne, and M. N. Patwary, “On Channel Transforms to Enhance Reciprocity and Quantization in Physical-Layer Secret Key Generation,” IEEE Access, vol. 13, no. November 2024, pp. 256–272, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3523105
M. Yuliana, Wirawan, and Suwadi, “A simple secret key generation by using a combination of pre-processing method with a multilevel quantization,” Entropy, vol. 21, no. 2, Feb. 2019. https://doi.org/10.3390/e21020192
A. Shojaifar, “Evaluation and Improvement of the RSSI- based Localization Algorithm,” Blekinge Inst. Technol., pp. 1–109, 2015.
M. C. Kriswantoro, A. Sudarsono, and M. Yuliana, “Secret Key Establishment Using Modified Quantization Log For Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network,” Inf. J. Ilm. Bid. Teknol. Inf. dan Komun., vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 103–109, Jul. 2021. https://doi.org/10.25139/inform.v6i2.4037
Abhijit Ambekar and Hans D. Schotten, Enhancing Channel Reciprocity for Effective KeyManagement in Wireless Ad-hoc Networks. 2014.
Amang Sudarsono, Mike Yuliana, and Prima Kristalina, A Reciprocity Approach for Shared Secret KeyGeneration Extracted from Received Signal Strengthin The Wireless Networks. IEEE, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1109/ELECSYM.2018.8615568
E. M. Member, E. Hasan, and G. Student, “Concept Drift Aware Wireless Key Generation in Dynamic LiFi Networks,” IEEE Open J. Commun. Soc., vol. PP, p. 1, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1109/OJCOMS.2024.3524497
N. N. Srinidhi, J. Shreyas, and E. Naresh, “Establishing Self-Healing and Seamless Connectivity among IoT Networks Using Kalman Filter,” J. Robot. Control, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 646–655, 2022. https://doi.org/10.18196/jrc.v3i5.11622
K. M. Maslahati, I. B. Purnawan, and M. I. Aprianto, “Implementasi Kalman Filter dan Logika Fuzzy untuk Kontrol Adaptif Kecepatan Kipas Berdasarkan Suhu Implementation of Kalman Filter and Fuzzy Logic for Adaptive Control of Fan Speed Based on Temperature,” vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 259–274, 2025. https://doi.org/10.30595/jrre.v7i2.27212
R. P. Astutik, “Filter Kalman Untuk Estimasi Daya Pada Komunikasi Bergerak,” E-Link J. Tek. Elektro dan Inform., vol. 1, no. 1, p. 25, 2018. https://doi.org/10.30587/e-link.v1i1.613
V. Firmansyah, “Aplikasi Kalman Filter Pada Pembacaan Sensor Suhu Untuk,” J. Mater. dan Energi Indones., vol. 08, no. September, pp. 0–7, 2018. https://doi.org/10.24198/jmei.v8i01.16624
M. Musayyanah, Hendra Daniswara, P. Susanto, and H. Harianto, “The Influence of Kalman Filtering on the Received Signal Strength Indicator in Multi-node Bluetooth Low Energy Communications,” Emit. J. Tek. Elektro, pp. 108–114, 2024. https://doi.org/10.23917/emitor.v24i2.2355
S. M. Rostamkolaei Motlagh, C. Pahl, H. R. Barzegar, and N. El Ioini, “A Comparative Evaluation of Zero Knowledge Proof Techniques,” Int. Conf. Internet Things, Big Data Secur. IoTBDS - Proc., no. March, pp. 237–244, 2025. https://doi.org/10.5220/0013269100003944
M. C. Kriswantoro, E. Handoyo, and M. Sa Yu Zakka, “Secure Authentication in Vehicular Networks: Integrating Zero-Knowledge Protocols with RSS Key Generation,” Inf. J. Ilm. Bid. Teknol. Inf. dan Komun., vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 146–151, 2025. https://doi.org/10.25139/inform.v10i2.9488